Habermas Political Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Habermas Political Philosophy - Essay Example The Habaermas talk morals hypothesis endeavors to clarify the deduction of informative levelheadedness in the light of good rudiments and regularizing approval. This is an amazingly many-sided exertion for hypothetically detailing the essentials given by Kant’s deontological morals especially as far as separation of open structures. As it were it endeavors to clarify the all inclusive nature just as the mandatory idea of profound quality through inciting the widespread commitment of open levelheadedness. Habermas suggests that the legitimacy of the standards of profound quality isn't reasonable in the psyche of an individual and on his/her impression of the world. Or maybe the norm’s legitimacy is absolutely reliant and conceivable when the procedure is exposed to argumentation among people; henceforth it is somewhat logic. Thusly the hypothesis expresses that the â€Å"validity of a case to standardizing rightness relies on the common comprehension accomplished by people in an argument† (Habermas 1990). Habermas has from the above contentions deducted that the world’s moral standards are the aftereffect of legitimacy guarantees through rambling legitimizations which have been forced upon people by the presupposition of correspondence and argumentation. A few models can be: The presupposition that there is no contention which is pertinent that is rejected by the people associated with the talk The presuppositions that that all the people that take an interest utilize a similar way of articulation (phonetic and social) in the informative trade The presupposition that all the people who partake are really spurred by a typical worry for the best contention Other than the abovementioned, there are uncommon and explicit presuppositions that are one of a kind to talk: The presupposition that all the people ought to be pleasing on the all inclusive legitimacy of the case all in all The presupposition that every single individual is completely fit to talk and act in a sound way in order to make them qualified to take part; it likewise surmises that all are equivalent to open new points and bring them into the talk whether it is as a declaration of demeanor or want or needs The presupposition that none of the legitimacy claims are excluded from gathering's basic assessment and argumentation in such manner In

100 Amazing Topics for Your Strong Persuasive Essay

100 Amazing Topics for Your Strong Persuasive Essay 100 Great Topics for Your Persuasive Essay Frequently understudies are given the theme before beginning their task. In the event that you ask normal researchers what they think about picking a point all alone, they would most likely say that it’s related with extra issues. Truth be told, picking a subject all alone can be an incredible preferred position in the event that you have a right comprehension of how to do it right. On the off chance that your educator allows you to settle on a point freely, you can get the topic that is fascinating and natural to you. In addition, you can check if there are sufficient free and accessible data hotspots for composing an article before settling on your last decision. On the off chance that you are given an errand to compose an enticing paper and to pick its point all alone, utilize this chance. It’s sufficiently just to go through around 10-20 minutes to figure out how to pick the point effectively and our article is planned for helping you with this. Why Students Write Argumentative Essays Instead of Persuasive Essays Before giving you a rundown of points, we need to talk about the contrast among contentious and enticing expositions. The issue is that numerous understudies can’t distinguish these two sorts of articles and commit a tremendous error composing a pugnacious exposition rather than the doled out convincing paper. The two sorts have very comparable points and it’s difficult to see how they contrast. We’ve found a definition that will make you see the highlights of the various kinds simpler: Contentious paper shows your perspective on an issue or a subject. Clarifying something, you tell the peruser that there are likewise other potential thoughts regarding the point, notwithstanding, you pick the one you talk about because of certain reasons. You clarify your thought yet you permit your peruser to think diversely and to conclude whether to help your perspective or not. Convincing exposition likewise talks about your perspective on a specific subject. Nonetheless, this time you utilize the realities and proclamations to demonstrate that your perspective is the right one, the most functional or moral one. Bit by bit, you need to show that various perspectives are less coherent. Your last point is to make a peruser bolster your thought. Understanding the distinction between the two sorts, you can likewise observe a more clear and progressively right method of getting a theme for your influential paper. 100 Topics for Your Excellent Persuasive Essay Working with the rundown of subjects, you can pick a prepared point and begin to chip away at it or to accept it as a rousing example and to make a comparable topic for your future exposition. Themes for Elementary Scholars Is it permitted to have a wild-brought into the world creature as a pet? Is it better to be the lone youngster or to experience childhood in a major family? On the off chance that you found a home of an uncommon creature on your yard, okay offer it to the research center or to the nearby zoo? Is having a superpower making you a superior individual? The best occasion of the year is Birthday/Christmas/New Year’s Eve. In the event that the imperceptible elixir is found, will it be given to individuals freely? A shop partner/server/transport driver is the most exceedingly awful activity on the planet. Will guardians urge their kids to pick school/companions/room stylistic theme autonomously? Will we remain neighborly with everybody? Will having a costly contraption impact the manner in which others see us? Themes for High School Scholars Will the arrival of capital punishment alarm hoodlums from carrying out a wrongdoing? Is it safe to permit individuals to change their names whenever they need? Will we focus at good and close to home characteristics of a president? Is more youthful age better adjusted for positive changes on the planet? Will form be hurtful to society? Will contact individuals pay extra expenses to help the individuals who are poor? Is bringing down the democratic age is a smart thought? How to lessen the degree of violations among secondary schools understudies? Will protection be disregarded for national security? Themes Connected to Education Existing disciplinary methods are obsolete to control present day adolescents. The cutting edge method of holding tests and scholastic tests might be unsafe to the improvement of imagination and basic reasoning? Will IT understudies be urged to make their own engaging applications and computer games? How to give a similarly significant level of instruction for youngsters in large urban communities and country zones? Will kids with various sorts of incapacities concentrate in isolated classes? What is the best method to quit harassing among kids? Is it important to have a unique uniform for instructors? Will physical preparing exercises be held by proficient athletes? Which measures can be taken to propel understudies with lower marks? Can video games urge understudies to utilize weapons at school? Points Connected to Technology and Scientific Progress How natural security can be enhanced a neighborhood level? Will robots with fake astuteness supplant people totally? Will fuel be supplanted with elective wellsprings of vitality? Is an Earth-wide temperature boost a characteristic procedure that doesn’t rely upon the action of people? What is the option for hereditarily altered food? Is fear mongering the most widely recognized purpose behind the advanced plane accident? The job of the human in the eradication of uncommon creatures and plants. Is it moral to confine various kids in a family so as to control the development of the populace? How delicate medications can be utilized in medication? The moral side of cloning creatures. Themes Connected to Nature Are zoos useful for assurance of uncommon types of creatures? Will chasing be moral? London Zoo would one say one is of the biggest and the best zoos on earth: do creatures feel great there? Is there’s any motivation to keep outlandish creatures as local pets? What is the best and best approach to prepare local creatures? Is it alright to raise various creatures so as to make new species? Vegetarianism can’t be useful for the creature world and nature. Is it indecent to wear characteristic calfskin? Is there a state of attempting to return terminated creatures like a mammoth? Why administrative strategy for nature insurance can’t quit poaching? Subjects Connected to Music and Arts How pilfering music impacts the economy of a nation. Could distinction of a music band or an artist bring more open doors for advancement of the nation they start from? Some music types have practically no distinctions: for what reason will they be isolated into various kinds? Would music be able to be utilized during the time spent recovery of hoodlums and detainees? Will diminishing the cost of music applications and collections lead to diminishing pilfering? Will old Chinese music be demonstrated as an alternate kind of craftsmanship? Will the sort of music for restoration be picked exclusively? How recorded tunes help us to comprehend certain snapshots of history? Would technologies be able to supplant craftsmen and performers? Music as a piece of treatment for relieving mental disarranges. Subjects Connected to Sports Will the creature sport be restricted? Is it moral to publicize shoddy nourishment, liquor or cigarettes during games? Will well known athletes control their conduct being a good example for young people? Is the notoriety of outrageous games can be a hazardous pattern? Will the bullfighting be prohibited, in any event, being a piece of Spanish culture and an old convention? Are hereditary qualities and an innate ability more significant than the difficult work in arriving at extraordinary outcomes in sport? Is there purpose of making sports groups that may incorporate both male and female players? Will various kinds of sports be isolated into female and male games? Will athletes work with a mentor as well as with a clinician to keep away from genuine sadness and to accomplish better outcomes? Is it important to make hostile to doping control progressively serious? Confused Topics for Persuasive Essays Are those highlights of individuals that are called ‘negative’ common and concur with the inherent senses? What will be the principle point of sexual training at school? Which measures can be taken to make oil makers be increasingly mindful to oil slicks? Will different nations answer the enhanced US approach that may damage the privileges of national minorities? Is the enactment that controls selling of weapons successful? Is free web genuine damage to the ethical standards of society? Which changes are important to make the copyright laws increasingly compelling? Will adolescents be given increasingly legitimate rights like democratic, purchasing liquor, managing banks and organizations? How might the opening of outskirts impact the world’s economy? How the world would be distinctive now for the situation if the German armed force could win the Second World War? Points Connected to Ethics and Morality How to make creature testing less dishonest for a situation it can’t be restricted? Will individuals be given a lawful option to bite the dust or to self destruction? How kids’ magnificence challenge can impact the advancement of mental issue among little youngsters? Which conditions are important to make willful extermination not unlawful? In what manner can administrations of created nations quit utilizing youngster work in different nations? Is agnosticism perilous for moral standards? How to decrease the quantity of superfluous plastic tasks that may hurt one’s wellbeing? Will understudies be permitted to purchase liquor drinks? Will understudies be engaged with intentional work that is associated with their future calling? What can be an elective method of controlling the quantity of illicit outsiders? Do cameras out in the open spots help to lessen the quantity of violations? All inclusive Topics for Persuasive Essay What is the most open minded approach to control the connection among agnostics and devotees? Is it important to take an interest in war clashes in Middle Eastern nations? The impact of ‘Sexual Revolution’ on present day workmanship, music and icons. Why the strain among vegans and meat eaters is developing

Colloquium Essay - 550 Words

Colloquium (Essay Sample) Content: NameTutorCourseDateColloquiumWe arrived at the museum and were welcomed enthusiastically on the parking level. In addition, the attendants gave us all the information we needed, including a map of the museum. The tour commenced. The 109-year-old Missouri institution was a sight to behold. It was a magnificent view of a marriage between the old and the new. The old building was grand and flawless. It married well with the Saint Louis Art Museumà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s East building. Our tour guide told us that the new building was designed by the British architect David Chipperfield. In addition, it was built to accommodate the extra collections that the museum collected. In fact, it increased the gallery space by a third. Anyway, the architecture was impressive.The tour guide also gave us a brief history of the museum. He told us that the Saint Louis Art Museum started in 1881 as part of Washington University. It was originally known as the Saint Louis School and Museum of fine A rts. A long name indeed! In 1904, the museum was moved from a building in downtown Saint Louis to its present home in Forest park. The forest park building was designed by Cass Gilbert, and it was constructed for two years. In 1904, the museum was renamed City Art Museum. In 1972, the museum changed its name to the Saint Louis Art Museum to reflect the contribution of the county residents in supporting the institution. Notably, the support from the county residents made it possible for the institution to allow free visits.Inside the museum, there is something for all art lovers. There were Egyptian mummies, one which was named Amen-Nestawy-Nakht, and artwork and even renaissance period artwork. There were also items collected during world war two. It was amazing that when people in the whole world were busy fighting each other, Saint Louis Art Museum was acquiring art masterpieces. One of my favorite art form was the Claude Monetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s (1840-1925) water lilies. I liked the wa y every piece carried an explanation of the time it was created and acquired, and the artist who mad it and his or her life. In addition, there was a brief history of the piece and the person who donated it to the museum. Moving on, we went through a piece of level two: European art. Here there was a vast collection of works by European masters such as Matisse, Gauguin (1838-1903), Monet (1840-1925), Picasso, and Van Gogh. I was attracted to Van Goghà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s (1890) drawing, Stairway at Auvers. It was incredible. I wondered how he managed to create such an excellent drawing back then. There were also paintings such as Robert Henrià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s (1896) Portrait of Carl Gustav Waldeck, George Caleb Bingham , The Verdict of the People (1854-1855), and Bartolomeo Manfredià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s (1616- 1620) Apollo and Marsyas. The tour guide told us that the museum had the largest Max Beckman collection such ...

Literature Review Learner Autonomy - 1503 Words

Literature Review. The focus of this literature review will be on the history of the set theme within the research project, the points that have been put across through various researchers will also be included to gain a clarity of understanding in topics related to learner autonomy and the belief’s teachers have on learner autonomy and the way in which they implement this in their classrooms. The literature review will consider the sub-headings above (I.1 – I.7). L.1- What is Learner Autonomy. As determined in I.2 there are several definitions of learner autonomy in second language learning and education. This category (L.1) will portray the different terms engaged in previous research. For example, Holec (1981, p.3) provided a definition†¦show more content†¦Therefore, if a student is learning through reactive autonomy they will learn what is necessary without being forced. This analysis of the two strands of learner autonomy has been a fresh way in which researchers have been able to define learner autonomy and this can be extremely helpful in Middle Eastern schools as this research is extremely new and cultural backgrounds which are different to the western culture (Smith,2008). Within the Middle East learner autonomy has been explored for many years as the introduction of learner autonomy needs to consider the cultural backgrounds of each student. Due to the Middle East having many expats this can be extremely difficult as Pennycook (1997, p.53) concluded that it is important for all teachers to not only look at the cultural side of learner autonomy but, also the political side to allow all students to ‘deal differently with the world and allow them to become authors of their own world’. Having a comprehension on the attributes of the understudies who are adapting independently is critical. Although, it is important for teachers to also have an understanding on how they can implement learner autonomy within the classrooms and within the Middle East this seems to be through the consideration of cultural and political views in the Middle East. L.3 – Curriculum and Classroom based approach. Per Cotterall (2000) the implantation of learnerShow MoreRelatedLearner Autonomy1084 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered? Dimitrios Thanasoulas The Internet TESL Journal 2. What is Autonomy? For a definition of autonomy, we might quote Holec (1981: 3, cited in Benson Voller, 1997: 1) who describes it as the ability to take charge of ones learning. On a general note, the term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways (see Benson Voller, 1997: 2): †¢ for situations in which learners study entirely on their own; †¢ for a set of skillsRead MoreExploring the Black Box: Assessment for Learning the Development of Autonomy in Key Stage 21678 Words   |  7 PagesExploring the black box: assessment for learning and the development of autonomy in Key Stage 2 1. Introduction: poking and prying with a purpose In 1942, novelist and anthropologist Zora Neale Hurston wrote ‘Research is formalized curiosity. It is poking and prying with a purpose’ (Hurston, 2006). As a Primary teacher, I started on this poking and prying because of a concern about pupils’ apparent lack of reflective thinking. In this section, I outline how this original concern developed by increasinglyRead MoreEngaging The Adult Learner For Adult Learners1028 Words   |  5 Pages Engaging the Adult Learner Jeffery Collins COLL100 B100 Fall 14 American Military University Dr. Gibson Engaging the Adult Learner Engaging adults during the learning process is an action that encompasses the use of skills to conquer their concentration and interest. The engagement is performed to ensure the adult learners will immediately identify with the information and the objective of the teaching. Once the identification and objectivity is formed learning is able to proceed. ThereforeRead MoreHow are Literacy, Fluency and Reading Comprehension Affected by Using Oral Reading Methods in the Classroom?1404 Words   |  6 PagesLiteracy, fluency and reading comprehension all play a crucial role in determining how learners acquire skills within the classroom. This paper will review a number of scholarly literatures that give more details about fluency and reading comprehension. Over a long period of time, the ability of a learner to read educational materials fluently has been taken as the most thorough learning method through which the learner can acquire literacy. Kuhn, Schwanenflugel and Meisinger (2010) argue that readingRead MoreAssignment 1 Self Managed Learning by P1734 Words   |  7 Pagesself-directed learner, deciding what will be their own goals according with their needs. At this stage the tutor can be only partial responsible in the process of learning, showing them how important is to become a „SelfDirected Learner‟, encouraging and guiding, also stimulate the individuals to think outside the box, always to seek for evaluation on everything that they do, letting the participants dedicate their time on researches and experiments. The process helps the learners understand howRead MoreObservation of a Non-Certified Satff Member Implement a Program Designed by a Behavior Analyst1651 Words   |  7 Pagesranged from first grade and the oldest was in sixth grade. During the time of the observation two learners remained in the classroom and the observer was told that those learners spend the majority of their day in this setting. Three other learners participate in the self-contained classroom as well as an inclusive setting for parts of the day. The time spent in inclusion was not observed. One learner was working one to one with a staff member who was administering and taking date on discrete trialsRead MoreMisconceptions on Learner Autonomy: a Methodological and Conceptual Renewal4972 Words   |  20 PagesMISCONCEPTIONS ON LEARNER AUTONOMY: A METHODOLOGICAL AND CONCEPTUAL RENEWAL Asuman AÅžIK (*) Abstract Learner autonomy emerges as the result of many methodological innovations in second/foreign language teaching over the last dec1ades, especially in communicative language teaching and learner-centered approaches. As the learner has become the center of the foreign language teaching, autonomy has been attributed to the learner as one of the essential capabilities that a learner should have. Learners are theRead MoreBenefits And Retention Strategies For Students1527 Words   |  7 Pageshas also been described (Kang Im, 2013). The term presence, has been used in literature dating back to the 1960s describing the interaction nurses have with others that enhances well-being. Traditional classrooms are naturally setup to provide the benefit of presence, whereas an online learning environments are not and can be challenging for both instructor and student. Interaction is vital for the online learner, because it aids in the development and understanding of concepts and enhance s theRead MoreAction Research. Research Has Shown That Technology Can1498 Words   |  6 PagesAction Research Research has shown that technology can support and enhance language learning. Technology can have many positive effects on learning, especially language learning, by supporting learners and the learning environment. However, students still have to communicate with people. They still need to share their thoughts, feelings, and opinions with peers and educators. They need to share what they have learned with others. Technology definitely connects people and can bring them togetherRead MoreWhy It Is Important That I Understand What Independent Learning1408 Words   |  6 PagesOne of this terms is called â€Å"self-directed learning† but is more likely to use the term â€Å"self-regulated learning† instead (MEYER et al, 2008 p: 2). According to Michael Grahame Moore â€Å"Independent learning is an educational system in which the learner is autonomous and separated from his teacher by space and time† (MOORE, M. G., 1973, P: 663). Although Forster (1972) defines â€Å"Independent study is a process, and a philosophy of education in which a student acquires knowledge by his/her own efforts

Macbeth, By William Shakespeare - 1802 Words

If a picture tells a thousand words, than imagine the importance of an image upon a play such as Macbeth. In any literary work, it is extremely important that the author can effectively manipulate a reader s feelings towards a character. In Macbeth, that feat is accomplished magnificently by Shakespeare. Through his skillful use of imagery, Shakespeare shows us a deeper look into the true character of Macbeth. Though imagery is widespread throughout Macbeth, it is most dominant in clothing imagery, light and darkness imagery, and blood imagery. Through these images, Shakespeare shows the development of Macbeth s character. Using clothing imagery, Shakespeare develops Macbeth s character. This is evident, as, imagery of clothing shows us Macbeth s ambition and the consequences thereof. We see this ambition, through Banquo, when he says, New honours come upon him, / Like our strange garments, cleave not to their / mould but with the aid of use. (Shakespeare, Macbeth I, III, 144-146), meaning that new clothes do not fit our bodies, until we are accustomed to them. Throughout the entire play, Macbeth is constantly wearing new clothes (titles), that are not his, and do not fit. Hence, his ambition. This ambition, as we see, is what leads to his demise. When Macbeth first hears the prophecy that he will be King, he does not see how it can be so, to be king / Stands not within the prospect of belief (I, III, 73-74). However, Macbeth s ambitious nature becomes visibleShow MoreRelatedMacbeth by William Shakespeare770 Words   |  3 PagesThe play Macbeth is written by William Shakespeare. It is believed to be written between 1603 and 1607 and set in eleventh century Scotland. It is also believed to be first performed in 1606. It is considered to be one of the darkest and most powerful tragedies. Macbeth, set in Scotland, dramatizes the psychological and political effects produced when evil is chosen to fulfill the ambition of power. The Tragedy of Macbeth is Shakespeare’s shortest tragedy and tells the story of Macbeth, a ScottishRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1425 Words   |  6 PagesMacbeth Just Can’t Wait To Be King Everyone has a quality that they do not like about themselves. Some people struggle to be social, others may be too controlling of people. The list goes on and on, but the point is that everybody has a particular quality that they must learn to control or else that particular quality can get out of hand. Of course, one could write a list of characters that have major flaws. There is no better example than William Shakespeare’s character, Macbeth, in The TragedyRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1409 Words   |  6 Pages â€Å"Fair is foul, and foul is fair: Hover through the fog and filthy air.† On October 17th, I had the pleasure of going to see Macbeth performed at the Shakespeare Tavern. Along with its reputation for being â€Å"cursed,† Macbeth is also known as one of the crown jewels of William Shakespeare’s repertoire. In my opinion, the central concept of this particular retelling of the play was the murkiness of character. Throughout the pla y, the many characters go through fierce temptation and strife, and noneRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1203 Words   |  5 PagesMacbeth is a play based on King James I, it was written by William Shakespeare, however this play isn’t a king and queen fairy tale, but it’s a play about greed and guilt, chaos and murder and three evil witches who use prophecies to influence Macbeth to do bad things, using flattery would instigate his inner ambition to become king, which in the end doesn’t lead to a very happy ending. Shakespeare’s, Macbeth, was written in the early Jacobean period. During those times, women had no power, theyRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1243 Words   |  5 PagesIn William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Macbeth†, the author portrays the main character Macbeth as a very tortured and flawed individual whose actions only serve to further unravel him. He is conflicted and power hungry, which drives him to perform evil murders and become a ruthless person. Macbeth’s moral compass is not resilient enough to withstand his wife’s manipulations and he is provoked to act on his malicious thoughts of murder. The author explores the terrible effects that ambition and guilt can haveRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare Essay1487 Words   |  6 Pagesreaction†. Macbeth by William Shakespeare is a tale which illuminates the consequences of violating the â€Å"Natural order†, the hierarchy of beings in the universe. When Macbeth, a warrior wel l-known for his courage and bravery, murders King Duncan acting on his unchecked ambition to claim the throne, the order was disrupted, the result†¦chaos. Shakespeare uses symbolism to illustrate the atmosphere of the play as the natural order is flung into a state of turmoil. These techniques used by Shakespeare is usedRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1483 Words   |  6 Pagesdifferent references in the play of how a king deals with power and if they use it for better or for their own personal gain. In the play Macbeth, by William Shakespeare, Macbeth’s obsession with his journey to power leads to his failure. This obsession is demonstrated through the prophecies, the murder of his best friend Banquo, and his own demise. Macbeth demonstrates that he is incapable of mastering the power and responsibilities of being a king. This is indicated throughout the play with theRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1045 Words   |  5 PagesBlood appears in only two forms, but many times in Macbeth by William Shakespeare; between the war scene at the beginning of the play and the lifting of Macbeth’s severed being lifted by Macduff at the end. It can be said that Macbeth could have been written in blood that there is such a large amount. What is unique about blood in Macbeth is that the â€Å"imaginary blood† or the guilt that the murderer feels plays more of a role of understand and amplifying the theme of the play, that blood is guiltRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare1431 Words   |  6 Pages Macbeth, though originally a valiant and prudent soldier, deteriorates into an unwise king whose rash decisions conclusively end in the atrophy of his title, power, and position. Several facto rs contribute to the downfall of Macbeth, which produce a contagion effect and ultimately end with his demise. He receives help from his â€Å"inner ambitions and external urgings† which result in his downfall (Bernad 49). The â€Å"external urgings† consist of the weird sisters who disclose his prophecies, which enlightenRead MoreMacbeth, By William Shakespeare2060 Words   |  9 Pagesthe green one red Macbeth Quote (Act II, Sc. II). Out, out, brief candle! Life s but a walking shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage and then is heard no more: it is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. Macbeth Quote (Act V, Scene V). These quotes have been taken from play Macbeth written by William Shakespeare. Like these quotes there are hundreds and thousands of such heart touching quotes written by Shakespeare in his many different

American inetervention in vietnam Essay Example For Students

American inetervention in vietnam Essay During the Cold War, the United States of America was determined to act as the superior nation in the world. They believed that every country was inferior to them in regards to military power, economic stability and moral beliefs. After the assassination of former President John F. Kennedy, the Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took over in Washington. He was pressured to follow through on the late Presidents programs and policies on Vietnam which entailed the demonstration of Americas strength and responsibility. It is argued that American intervention in Vietnam was caused by structural weakness in the National Security Council and inadequate attention to long- range policy planning. In addition, Johnsons inexperience and naivety regarding foreign policy and the optimistic belief of creating a flawless world. A main cause of American involvement was the weakness of the mechanism for determining the framework of foreign policy. The establishment of the National Security Council came about in 1947. It was to bridge the gulf between considerations of foreign policy and considerations of the military force which was to conduct external relations.1 Apparently, the U.S.A. had had no central authority that linked the organizations of the Military Services and the State Department. As a result, the government decided that in order to be successful in international affairs the two groups had to work together. The NSC ensured detailed coordination of all major factors of U.S. foreign policy decisions.2 It was odd that both President Truman and Eisenhower had success with this organization and when Kennedy came to office he decided to change it. He preferred to rely on small groups to be responsible for policy formation and execution therefore, he was more comfortablewith a broad knowledge of foreig n affairs and a strong distaste for being hemmed in by too much organization.3 This informal system carried serious dangers of insufficient coordination, as the travesty at the Bay of Pigs soon showed and Johnson was unfortunate to inherit it.4 Lyndon Johnson had many vital decisions to make when he was in office. The fragmented NSC was not an efficient instrument since he had to conclude whether or not to continue supporting Vietnam militarily and economically. Our large-scale military entry into the Vietnam War in early 1965 reflected the piecemeal consideration of interrelated issues, and that this was the natural consequence of a fragmented NSC and a general inattention to long-range policy planning. Consultation, even knowledge of the basic facts, was confined to a tight circle of presidential advisors,and there appears to have been little systematic debate outside that group.5The White-House was primarily for action or reaction and not a place for reflective thought on difficult long-term problems, this was a result for an absence of comprehensive policy analysis.6 The Policy Planning Staff, during the years of 1961- 1966 tried to figure out a possible solution through the National Policy Papers. These papers set down responsible lines of policy for the U.S. government to follow. Apparently, the principal department heads, Secretary of State Dean Rusk and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, were unwilling to spend the personal time r equired to reach any agreement and furthermore, no one would take the time to read or endorse the Papers. The general inattention to long-range policy planning is demonstrated by the decisions and actions that marked the largescale military entry into the Vietnam War in early 1965 which reflected the piecemeal consideration of interrelated issues.7The United States was determined that bombing North Vietnam was a tactic of maintaining the conflict within boundaries. Hanoi was believed to surrender shortly after bombing and during the pauses, negotiations would take place. North Vietnam was convinced that bombing would not affect their behaviour and if they prolong the wartheir forces will grow stronger, the enemy forces will be weakened. Protracted negotiationswould erode its adversarys will.8 This illustrates the poor planning on U.S. governments behalf since they were convinced that their military force would have a great impact on Hanois decisions. Johnsons inability to effectively enforce leadership commands were evident during his term in office. This president portrayed no central guiding philosophy in foreign policy and there was confirmation of slackness in coordinating disparate elements. This was the result of little background and uncertainty in foreign affairs.9 Johnson lacked moral courage in the Vietnam conflict which illustrates his incapabilities to lead a country of great power. Even presidential aides were sceptical about Johnsons ability as a Vice-President. Kennedy had sent him on a special investigative mission to Saigon and the story was spread that Johnson,fearing he would be killed, had argued for two weeks against the journey: I dont want to embarrass you by getting my head blown off in Saigon. The young president supposedly answered: Thats all right Lyndon. If anything happens to you out there, Sam Rayburn and I will give you the biggest funeral in the history of Austin, Texas. Kennedys aidesnoted that th e vice-president agreed to go only if Kennedys sisterwent along to prove there was little danger.10Johnson inherited a loose and flexible organization which his personal existing characteristics did not match. His galvanic temperament, irregular administrative habits, and passion for secretiveness could or would have used a more formal structure to good advantage.11 It appeared that Johnson was incapable to deal with such an intricate dilemma in comparison to the previous presidents. File Sharing Systems EssayAmerican intervention in the Vietnam War stemmed from previous conflicts which they were involved in. The Cold War was unresolved since the States were determined to prevent Communist invasion over the world. It was ironic that a country with such a powerful reputation had weak organization. The fragmented National Security Council contributed to the poor strategy planning for Vietnam War. An attempt to combine the Military Services and the State Department was not successful during Johnsons term in office since it was proved to be an ineffective informal structure. As a President, Johnson had little background in foreign affairs and his lack of confidence contributed to the failure within the Vietnam conflict. Taking all matters into account it is apparent and predictably obvious that the United States had no concrete plan to win the War. Bibliography:Berman, Larry, Lyndon Johnsons War., New York, 1989. Brown, Weldon A., The Last Chopper., New York, 1976. Goodman, Allan E., The Lost Peace., Stanford, 1978. Hoopes, Townsend, The Limits of Intervention., New York, 1973. Turner, Kathleen J., Lyndon Johnsons Dual War., Chicago, 1985. The Pentagon Papers., Boston: Beacon Press, vol.3vol.4. ENDNOTES1.Townsend Hoopes, The Limits of Intervention. (New York,1973),p.2. 2.Ibid, p.33.Ibid, p.5. 4.Ibid, p.5. 5.Weldon A. Brown, The Last Chopper. (New York, 1976),p.6. 6.Hoopes, p.5. 7. Hoopes, p.7. 8.Allan E. Goodman, The Lost Peace. (Stanford, 1978), p.12. 9.Hoopes, p.210. Brown, p.7. 11. Hoopes, p.5. 12 Hoopes, p.8. 13. Hoopes, p.8. 14. Hoopes, p.12. 15. Hoopes, p.13. 16. Hoopes, p.14. 17. Hoopes, p.15. 18. Hoopes, p.16. 19. Hoopes, p.17. 20. Hoopes, Op.cit., p.1721. The Pentagon Papers. (Boston:Beacon Press) vol.3,p.715. 22. Hoopes, p.18. 23. Hoopes, Op.cit.,p.19. 24. Larry Berman, Lyndon Johnsons War.(New York,1989),p.9. 25. The Pentagon Papers.(Boston:Beacon Press) vol.4,p.641.

On Tuesday, November 14, 1995, In What Has Been Perceived As The Years

On Tuesday, November 14, 1995, in what has been perceived as the years biggest non-event, the federal government shut down all "non-essential" services due to what was, for all intents and purposes, a game of national "chicken" between the House Speaker and the President. And, at an estimated cost of 200 million dollars a day, this dubious battle of dueling egos did not come cheap (Bradsher, 1995, p.16). Why do politicians find it almost congenitally impossible to cooperate? What is it about politics and power that seem to always put them at odds with good government? Indeed, is an effective, well run government even possible given the current adversarial relationship between our two main political parties? It would seem that the exercise of power for its own sake, and a competitive situation in which one side must always oppose the other on any issue, is incompatible with the cooperation and compromise necessary for the government to function. As the United States becomes more extre me in its beliefs in general, group polarization and competition, which requires a mutual exclusivity of goal attainment, will lead to more "showdown" situations in which the goal of good government gives way to political posturing and power-mongering. In this paper I will analyze recent political behavior in terms of two factors: Group behavior with an emphasis on polarization, and competition. However, one should keep in mind that these two factors are interrelated. Group polarization tends to exacerbate inter-group competition by driving any two groups who initially disagree farther apart in their respective views. In turn, a competitive situation in which one side must lose in order for the other to win (and political situations are nearly always competitive), will codify the differences between groups - leading to further extremism by those seeking power within the group - and thus, to further group polarization. In the above example, the two main combatants, Bill Clinton and N ewt Gingrich, were virtually forced to take uncompromising, disparate views because of the very nature of authority within their respective political groups. Group polarization refers to the tendency of groups to gravitate to the extreme of whatever opinion the group shares (Baron & Graziano, 1991, p.498-99). Therefore, if the extreme is seen as a desirable characteristic, individuals who exhibit extreme beliefs will gain authority through referent power. In other words, they will have characteristics that other group members admire and seek to emulate (p. 434). Unfortunately, this circle of polarization and authority can lead to a bizarre form of "one-upsmanship" in which each group member seeks to gain power and approval by being more extreme than the others. The end result is extremism in the pursuit of authority without any regard to the practicality or "reasonableness" of the beliefs in question. Since the direction of polarization is currently in opposite directions in our two party system, it is almost impossible to find a common ground between them. In addition, the competitive nature of the two party system many times eliminates even the possibility of compromise since failure usually leads to a devastating loss of power. If both victory and extremism are necessary to retain power within the group, and if, as Alfie Kohn (1986) stated in his book No Contest: The Case Against Competition, competition is "mutually exclusive goal attainment" (one side must lose in order for the other to win), then compromise and cooperation are impossible (p. 136). This is especially so if the opponents are dedicated to retaining power "at all costs." That power is an end in itself is made clear by the recent shutdown of the government. It served no logical purpose. Beyond costing a lot of money, it had no discernible effect except as a power struggle between two political heavyweights. According to David Kipnis (1976, cited in Baron & Graziano, 1991), one of the negative effects of power is, in fact, the tendency to regard it as its own end, and to ignore the possibility of disastrous results from the reckless use of power (p. 433). Therefore, it would seem that (at least in this case) government policy is created and implemented, not with regard to its effectiveness as government policy, but only with regard to its